Chinese Scholar Stones An introduction to the history and aesthetics by Arthur Skolnik Heaved up from miles under ground, deep inside the earth's crust, and then worn down by wind, water and the slow, mysterious creep of glaciers, stone melds the earth¼s outermost layer. This cycle span eons. And in the mountain chains that rim oceans and split continents, the boulders that channel rivers, and the rocky outcroppings that groove hillsides and meadows, stone also cradles the soil, water and plants that form the environment around us. For many centuries, stones have played a richly allusive role in Chinese culture. In gardens, for example, they were characterized as Athe roots of heaven@ and as fossilized dragon=s bones. Stones were used to form the natural backbones of these gardens, (soil was considered the skin) in much the same way mountain ranges form the natural backbone of a continent, perhaps because stone's air of timeless stability and continuity appeals to cultures that value the same qualities in religion, art and social interaction. Chinese landscapers frequently used stone in it's natural, uncut form, a reflection of the value Chinese garden owners placed on the expression and interpretation of nature. Rock features dominate much of China's landscape in the form of mountains, cliffs, gorges, gullies and ravines. Another reason rock and stone played such a large role in China's nature oriented art is mountains and stones were worshipped as devine beings, from an early point in Chinese history. They considered the cloud-hung mountains to be the country's spiritual center. In fact, the early Chinese believed they were surrounded by sacred mountain ranges, with the holiest mountain of all, Mount Tai, in Shandong province. Mountains were considered as centers of cosmic energy, the conductors of magical electricity which flashed around their peaks, while the thunder roared and grumbled in the crags. The mountains were said to generate the clouds draping their peaks and so were seen as the source of rain and the empire's fertility. Besides being sacred objects, mountains were thought to be the home of supernatural beings. The Immortals, often depicted as wizened little god-like men, with high, wrinkled foreheads and drooping earlobes (typical of Chinese sages) were the chief inhabitants of these mountains.(Their diet consisted of phoenix eggs, dragons' livers and peaches. This may sound unappetizing but actually, 3 of the major food groups are represented.) Since mountains, rock and stone were considered as the bones of the earth and kernels of energy, it was deemed essential to feature them in every garden, however small they were. Often individual stones of exceptional beauty or bazaar appearance were placed as focal or exclamation points in the grammar of a garden composition. Landscape artists were developing gardens which sought to embody poems and when viewed, the image which sprang to mind was of a painting, in 3 dimensions . (In contrast, the rocks and stones placed in Japanese gardens, were meant to look entirely natural, and were carefully used to harmoniously bind together all the component elements of a particular site. So, while the Chinese used stone to represent but not duplicate the natural landscape, the Japanese used stones alone, or in groups to look naturally understated.) Like a landscape painting, the rock represented a microcosm of the universe, on which the scholar could meditate within the confines of his studio. For the scholar, studio and garden were a continuum. Who is to say whether the best view is from the studio to the garden, or from the outdoors to indoors? Approximately 1000 years ago, small scale counterparts to these monumental garden stones were collected and displayed indoors on finely sculpted wood stands by the Literati, an elite class of poets and scholars. Before the Song dynasty, 960-1279, scholars' rocks were placed in basins. As they became prized by collectors, beautifully carved wooden stands were introduced to separate them from ordinary stones. These wood bases were also meant to provide either a vertical or horizontal orientation for the rock which would help define it's metaphoric content. * Stones were placed alongside other works of art such as calligraphy and scroll paintings of mountain landscapes. 'Scholars' rocks were part of a refined and purified life devoted to meditation, ontological thought and writings on the nature of existence. (Could not these Literati be considered the precursor to modern day Beatniks?) In 1131 A.D., Du Wan, a descendant of poets and statesmen, wrote a book about stones and rocks called "Stone Catalogue of Cloudy Forest." The introduction explains that studying stones purifies the imagination! Du Wan lists 116 different kinds of rock according to their shape, texture and colour and places them into two categories - either ornamental or practical (i.e., in making handicrafts,structures, etc.) Du Wan explains that ornamental rocks should be selected according to several criteria. One concerns the type of hollows and perforations a stone displays. Since a form of cosmic energy resides in them, a stone with numerous and deep perforations, or delicate hollows and rough knobs, is to be highly prized. The skeletal structure or overall shape of the rock is also important because the Chinese believe that an object's structure or bones, reveals it's innermost character. Lastly, the ribbing and striations of a stone's surface are significant because they represent it's veins, the conduits of spiritual power. Another connoisseur of stones who lived in the Song dynasty, believed that the "earth experience" a rock possessed, could benefit the spiritually prepared cultivated gentleman. What makes one stone more worthy or collectable than another? How can the beauty or virtue of these fantastic rocks be measured? Around the end of the Ming dynasty, (mid 17th century), the scholar/connoisseurs of the time developed criteria, called the "Four Virtues", for judging stones. These are: elegant/refined; wrinkled; lean; lets water through. Of these virtues they commented,..." the finest of workmanship could not achieve these qualities." They also said, ..." if the rock does not seem like a painting by the powers of nature, it should not be chosen." One modern day collector looks simply for strength and harmony of form. Compared to the complex rating system devised and explained several issues ago in this magazine, the Chinese way of evaluating stones may seem deceptively simple to us in the west. However, it is my opinion, that one can only begin to appreciate and understand the beauty within a Scholar's stone by relinquishing our pre-conceived notions of western aesthetics, (unlearn before you can learn), gaining insight to the Chinese aesthetic view of nature and by studying the philosophy, symbolism and history which have shaped this vast country. The images conjured up in a viewer¼s mind, the symbolism, metaphors, inspiration or abstraction can be as deep and varied as the viewer¼s imagination.